Презентация, доклад Билингвальный урок Клеточный метоболизм

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Cellular MetabolismCellular metabolism refers to all of the chemical processes that occur inside living cells.

Слайд 1Cellular Metabolism
Chapter 4

Cellular MetabolismChapter 4

Слайд 2Cellular Metabolism
Cellular metabolism refers to all of the chemical processes that

occur inside living cells.
Cellular MetabolismCellular metabolism refers to all of the chemical processes that occur inside living cells.

Слайд 3Energy
Energy can exist in two states:
Kinetic energy – energy of motion.
Potential

energy – stored energy.
Chemical energy – potential energy stored in bonds, released when bonds are broken.
Energy can be transformed form one state to another.
EnergyEnergy can exist in two states:Kinetic energy – energy of motion.Potential energy – stored energy. Chemical energy

Слайд 4Energy
The ultimate source of energy for most living things is the

sun.
EnergyThe ultimate source of energy for most living things is the sun.

Слайд 5Laws of Thermodynamics
First law of thermodynamics – energy cannot be created

or destroyed – only transformed.
Second law of thermodynamics – a closed system moves toward entropy, increasing disorder.
Living systems are open systems that maintain organization and increase it during development.
Laws of ThermodynamicsFirst law of thermodynamics – energy cannot be created or destroyed – only transformed.Second law

Слайд 6Free Energy
Free energy – the energy available for doing work.
Most chemical

reactions release free energy – they are exergonic.
Downhill
Some reactions require the input of free energy – they are endergonic.
Uphill
Free EnergyFree energy – the energy available for doing work.Most chemical reactions release free energy – they

Слайд 7Enzymes
Bonds must be destabilized before any reaction can occur – even

exergonic.
Activation energy must be supplied so that the bond will break.
Heat – increases rate at which molecules collide.
Catalysts can lower activation energy.
EnzymesBonds must be destabilized before any reaction can occur – even exergonic.Activation energy must be supplied so

Слайд 8Enzymes
Catalysts are chemical substances that speed up a reaction without affecting

the products.
Catalysts are not used up or changed in any way during the reaction.
Enzymes are important catalysts in living organisms.
EnzymesCatalysts are chemical substances that speed up a reaction without affecting the products. Catalysts are not used

Слайд 9Enzymes
Enzymes reduce the amount of activation energy required for a reaction

to proceed.
Enzymes are not used up or altered.
Products are not altered.
Energy released is the same.
EnzymesEnzymes reduce the amount of activation energy required for a reaction to proceed.Enzymes are not used up

Слайд 10Enzymes
Enzymes may be pure proteins or proteins plus cofactors such as

metallic ions or coenzymes, organic group that contain groups derived from vitamins.
EnzymesEnzymes may be pure proteins or proteins plus cofactors such as metallic ions or coenzymes, organic group

Слайд 11Enzyme Function
An enzyme works by binding with its substrate, the molecule

whose reaction is catalyzed.
The active site is the location on the enzyme where the substrate fits.
Enzyme + Substrate = ES complex.
Enzyme FunctionAn enzyme works by binding with its substrate, the molecule whose reaction is catalyzed.The active site

Слайд 12Enzyme Specificity
Enzymes are highly specific.
There is an exact molecular fit between

enzyme and substrate.
Some enzymes work with only one substrate, others work with a group of molecules.
Succinic dehydrogenase oxidizes only succinic acid.
Proteases will act on any protein, although they still have a specific point of attack.
Enzyme SpecificityEnzymes are highly specific.There is an exact molecular fit between enzyme and substrate.Some enzymes work with

Слайд 13Enzyme-Catalyzed Reactions
Enzyme-catalyzed reactions are reversible.
Indicated by double arrows in reactions.
Tend to

go mostly in one direction.
Reactions tend to be catalyzed by different enzymes for each direction.
Catabolic (degradation) reaction catalyzed by enzyme A.
Anabolic (synthesis) reaction catalyzed by enzyme B.
Enzyme-Catalyzed ReactionsEnzyme-catalyzed reactions are reversible.Indicated by double arrows in reactions.Tend to go mostly in one direction.Reactions tend

Слайд 14Importance of ATP
Endergonic reactions require energy to proceed.
Coupling an energy-requiring reaction

with an energy-yielding reaction can drive endergonic reactions.
ATP is the most common intermediate in coupled reactions.
Importance of ATPEndergonic reactions require energy to proceed.Coupling an energy-requiring reaction with an energy-yielding reaction can drive

Слайд 15Importance of ATP
ATP consists of adenosine (adenine + ribose) and a

triphosphate group.
The bonds between the phosphate groups are high energy bonds.
A-P~P~P
Importance of ATPATP consists of adenosine (adenine + ribose) and a triphosphate group.The bonds between the phosphate

Слайд 16Importance of ATP
Phosphates have negative charges.
Takes lots of energy to hold

3 in a row!
Ready to spring apart.
So, ATP is very reactive.
Importance of ATPPhosphates have negative charges.Takes lots of energy to hold 3 in a row!Ready to spring

Слайд 17Importance of ATP
A coupled reaction is a system of two reactions

linked by an energy shuttle – ATP.
Substrate B is a fuel – like glucose or lipid.
ATP is not a storehouse of energy – used as soon as it’s available.
Importance of ATPA coupled reaction is a system of two reactions linked by an energy shuttle –

Слайд 18Oxidation – Reduction - Redox
An atom that loses an electron has

been oxidized. Oxygen is a common electron acceptor.
An atom that gains an electron has been reduced. Higher energy.
Oxidation – Reduction - RedoxAn atom that loses an electron has been oxidized. Oxygen is a common

Слайд 19Redox Reactions
Redox reactions always occur in pairs.
One atom loses the electron,

the other gains the electron.
Energy is transferred from one atom to another via redox reactions.
Redox ReactionsRedox reactions always occur in pairs.One atom loses the electron, the other gains the electron.Energy is

Слайд 20Cellular Respiration
Cellular respiration – the oxidation of food molecules to obtain

energy.
Electrons are stripped away.
Different from breathing (respiration).
Cellular RespirationCellular respiration – the oxidation of food molecules to obtain energy.Electrons are stripped away.Different from breathing

Слайд 21Cellular Respiration
Aerobic versus Anaerobic Metabolism
Heterotrophs
Aerobes: Use molecular oxygen as the final

electron acceptor
Anaerobes: Use other molecules as final electron acceptor
Energy yield much lower ATP yield

Cellular RespirationAerobic versus Anaerobic MetabolismHeterotrophsAerobes: Use molecular oxygen as the final electron acceptorAnaerobes: Use other molecules as

Слайд 22Cellular Respiration
When oxygen acts as the final electron acceptor (aerobes):
Almost 20

times more energy is released than if another acceptor is used (anaerobes).
Advantage of aerobic metabolism:
Smaller quantity of food required to maintain given rate of metabolism.
Cellular RespirationWhen oxygen acts as the final electron acceptor (aerobes):Almost 20 times more energy is released than

Слайд 23Aerobic Respiration
In aerobic respiration, ATP forms as electrons are harvested, transferred

along the electron transport chain and eventually donated to O2 gas.
Oxygen is required!
Glucose is completely oxidized.
C6H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6H2O + energy (heat Glucose Oxygen Carbon Water or ATP)
Dioxide
Aerobic RespirationIn aerobic respiration, ATP forms as electrons are harvested, transferred along the electron transport chain and

Слайд 24Cellular Respiration - 3 Stages
Food is digested to break it into

smaller pieces – no energy production here.
Glycolysis – coupled reactions used to make ATP.
Occurs in cytoplasm
Doesn’t require O2
Oxidation – harvests electrons and uses their energy to power ATP production.
Only in mitochondria
More powerful
Cellular Respiration - 3 StagesFood is digested to break it into smaller pieces – no energy production

Слайд 25Anaerobic Respiration
Anaerobic respiration occurs in the absence of oxygen.
Different electron acceptors

are used instead of oxygen (sulfur, or nitrate).
Sugars are not completely oxidized, so it doesn’t generate as much ATP.
Anaerobic RespirationAnaerobic respiration occurs in the absence of oxygen.Different electron acceptors are used instead of oxygen (sulfur,

Слайд 26Glycolysis
Glycolysis – the first stage in cellular respiration.
A series of enzyme

catalyzed reactions.
Glucose converted to pyruvic acid.
Small number of ATPs made (2 per glucose molecule), but it is possible in the absence of oxygen.
All living organisms use glycolysis.
GlycolysisGlycolysis – the first stage in cellular respiration.A series of enzyme catalyzed reactions.Glucose converted to pyruvic acid.Small

Слайд 27Glycolysis
Uphill portion primes the fuel with phosphates.
Uses 2 ATPs
Fuel is cleaved

into 3-C sugars which undergo oxidation.
NAD+ accepts e-s & 1 H+ to produce NADH
NADH serves as a carrier to move high energy e-s to the final electron transport chain.
Downhill portion produces 2 ATPs per 3-C sugar (4 total).
Net production of 2 ATPs per glucose molecule.
GlycolysisUphill portion primes the fuel with phosphates.Uses 2 ATPsFuel is cleaved into 3-C sugars which undergo oxidation.NAD+

Слайд 28Glycolysis
Summary of the enzymatically catalyzed reactions in glycolysis:
Glucose +

2ADP + 2Pi + 2 NAD+ 2 Pyruvic acid + 2 NADH + 2ATP

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3GTjQTqUuOw&list=FL9N_Px072WuVorSwDfqf-9w&index=4&feature=plpp

GlycolysisSummary of the enzymatically catalyzed reactions in glycolysis: Glucose + 2ADP + 2Pi + 2 NAD+

Слайд 29Harvesting Electrons form Chemical Bonds
When oxygen is available, a second oxidative

stage of cellular respiration takes place.
First step – oxidize the 3-carbon pyruvate in the mitochondria forming Acetyl-CoA.
Next, Acetyl-CoA is oxidized in the Krebs cycle.
Harvesting Electrons form Chemical BondsWhen oxygen is available, a second oxidative stage of cellular respiration takes place.First

Слайд 30Producing Acetyl-CoA
The 3-carbon pyruvate loses a carbon producing an acetyl group.
Electrons

are transferred to NAD+ forming NADH.
The acetyl group combines with CoA forming Acetyl-CoA.
Ready for use in Krebs cycle.
Producing Acetyl-CoAThe 3-carbon pyruvate loses a carbon producing an acetyl group.Electrons are transferred to NAD+ forming NADH.The

Слайд 31The Krebs Cycle
The Krebs cycle is the next stage in oxidative

respiration and takes place in the mitochondria.
Acetyl-CoA joins cycle, binding to a 4-carbon molecule to form a 6-carbon molecule.
2 carbons removed as CO2, their electrons donated to NAD+, 4-carbon molecules left.
2 NADH produced.
More electrons are extracted and the original 4-carbon material is regenerated.
1 ATP, 1 NADH, and 1 FADH2 produced.
The Krebs CycleThe Krebs cycle is the next stage in oxidative respiration and takes place in the

Слайд 33The Krebs Cycle
Each glucose provides 2 pyruvates, therefore 2 turns of

the Krebs cycle.
Glucose is completely consumed during cellular respiration.
The Krebs CycleEach glucose provides 2 pyruvates, therefore 2 turns of the Krebs cycle.Glucose is completely consumed

Слайд 34The Krebs Cycle
Acetyl unit + 3 NAD+ + FAD + ADP

+ Pi 2 CO2 + 3 NADH + FADH2 + ATP

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-cDFYXc9Wko

The Krebs CycleAcetyl unit + 3 NAD+ + FAD + ADP + Pi 2 CO2 + 3 NADH

Слайд 35Using Electrons to Make ATP
NADH & FADH2 contain energized electrons.
NADH molecules

carry their electrons to the inner mitochondrial membrane where they transfer electrons to a series of membrane bound proteins – the electron transport chain.
Using Electrons to Make ATPNADH & FADH2 contain energized electrons.NADH molecules carry their electrons to the inner

Слайд 36Building an Electrochemical Gradient
In eukaryotes, aerobic metabolism takes place in the

mitochondria in virtually all cells.
The Krebs cycle occurs in the matrix, or internal compartment of the mitochondrion.
Protons (H+) are pumped out of the matrix into the intermembrane space.
Building an Electrochemical GradientIn eukaryotes, aerobic metabolism takes place in the mitochondria in virtually all cells.The Krebs

Слайд 37Producing ATP- Chemiosmosis
A strong gradient with many protons outside the matrix

and few inside is set up.
Protons are driven back into the matrix.
They must pass through special channels that will drive synthesis of ATP.
Oxidative phosphorylation
Producing ATP- ChemiosmosisA strong gradient with many protons outside the matrix and few inside is set up.Protons

Слайд 39Electron Transport Review
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kN5MtqAB_Yc&list=FL9N_Px072WuVorSwDfqf-9w&index=2&feature=plpp

Electron Transport Reviewhttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kN5MtqAB_Yc&list=FL9N_Px072WuVorSwDfqf-9w&index=2&feature=plpp

Слайд 40Review of Cellular Respiration
1 ATP generated for each proton pump activated

by the electron transport chain.
NADH activates 3 pumps.
FADH2 activates 2 pumps.
The 2 NADH produced during glycolysis must be transported across the mitochondrial membrane using 2 ATP.
Net ATP production = 4
Review of Cellular Respiration1 ATP generated for each proton pump activated by the electron transport chain.NADH activates

Слайд 41Glucose + 2 ATP + 36 ADP + 36 Pi +

6 O2 6CO2 + 2 ADP + 36 ATP + 6 H2O
Glucose + 2 ATP + 36 ADP + 36 Pi + 6 O2 6CO2

Слайд 42Fermentation
In the absence of oxygen, the end-product of glycolysis, pyruvate, is

used in fermentation.
During glycolysis, all the NAD+ becomes saturated with electrons (NADH). When this happens, glycolysis will stop.
2 NADH and 2 ATP produced.
Pyruvate is used as the electron acceptor resetting the NAD+ for use in glycolysis.
FermentationIn the absence of oxygen, the end-product of glycolysis, pyruvate, is used in fermentation.During glycolysis, all the

Слайд 43Fermentation – 2 Types
Animals add extracted electrons to pyruvate forming lactate.
Reversible

when oxygen becomes available.
Muscle fatigue
Yeasts, single-celled fungi, produce ethanol.
Present in wine & beer.
Alcoholic fermentation

Fermentation – 2 TypesAnimals add extracted electrons to pyruvate forming lactate.Reversible when oxygen becomes available.Muscle fatigueYeasts, single-celled

Слайд 45Metabolism of Lipids
Triglycerides are broken down into glycerol and 3 fatty

acid chains.
Glycerol enters glycolysis.
Fatty acids are oxidized and 2-C molecules break off as acetyl-CoA.
Oxidation of one 18-C stearic acid will net 146 ATP.
Oxidation of three glucose (18 Cs) nets 108 ATP.
Glycerol nets 22 ATP, so 1 triglyceride nets 462 ATP.
Metabolism of LipidsTriglycerides are broken down into glycerol and 3 fatty acid chains.Glycerol enters glycolysis.Fatty acids are

Слайд 46Metabolism of Proteins
Proteins digested in the gut into amino acids which

are then absorbed into blood and extracellular fluid.
Excess proteins can serve as fuel like carbohydrates and fats.
Nitrogen is removed producing carbon skeletons and ammonia.
Carbon skeletons oxidized.
Metabolism of ProteinsProteins digested in the gut into amino acids which are then absorbed into blood and

Слайд 47Metabolism of Proteins
Ammonia is highly toxic, but soluble.
Can be excreted by

aquatic organisms as ammonia.
Terrestrial organisms must detoxify it first.
Metabolism of ProteinsAmmonia is highly toxic, but soluble.Can be excreted by aquatic organisms as ammonia.Terrestrial organisms must

Слайд 48Regulating Cellular Respiration
Rate of cellular respiration slows down when your cells

have enough ATP.
Enzymes that are important early in the process have an allosteric (regulating) site that will bind to ATP.
When lots of ATP is present, it will bind to this site, changing the shape of the enzyme, halting cellular respiration.
Regulating Cellular RespirationRate of cellular respiration slows down when your cells have enough ATP.Enzymes that are important

Слайд 49Regulating Cellular Respiration
Enzyme activity is controlled by presence or absence of

metabolites that cause conformational changes in enzymes.
Improves or decreases effectiveness as catalyst.
Regulating Cellular RespirationEnzyme activity is controlled by presence or absence of metabolites that cause conformational changes in
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